Domitian and Minerva at Rome: Iconography and Divine Sanction in the Eternal City Restricted; Files Only

Abstract

Domitian’s fondness for the Roman goddess Minerva has long been recognized; she dominated court-sanctioned literature, coinage, monuments, and festivals to such an extent that she became inseparable from Domitian’s tenure as emperor. Modern scholarship has often dismissed this as one in a long line of symptoms linked to his descent into tyranny, an assumption that is rooted in the politically charged and defamatory literature published after his assassination. Minerva has rarely been separated from her Greek cousin Athena, and so becomes the transgressive foreign emblem of Domitian’s heavy handed moral reforms through her status as a virgin goddess, or his battle lust through her position as a goddess of war. These approaches fail to consider the many unique Roman elements of Minerva’s cult and their multivalent use under Domitian. This study examines Domitian’s Minerva in light of her prominent role in Roman history, mythology, and religion and resituates his use of her as a calculated choice meant to connect him to that same legacy.

Evaluating Minerva across various media, from her birth as an Etruscan goddess (Menrva) through the Flavian period, establishes that while she did retain several commonalities with Athena she also kept certain Italic elements, such as her healing cult (Minerva Medica), connection with prophecy, and powers over weather. Above all else she becomes associated with the welfare of the state and the power of empire through the palladium, a sacred icon from Troy which was said to take an active role in protecting Rome. Domitian’s approach was two-pronged: first, through gender-fused portraits and then physical proximity, he sought to create an inextricable connection between himself and Minerva. Second, he flooded metropolitan Rome with images and references to her role in every aspect of Roman life and thus, through her divine patronage, legitimized himself as a worthy emperor. Examining Domitian’s Minerva across media and considering her Italic qualities reveals a goddess that was not only much more central to Roman religion and history than previously thought, but a comprehensive propaganda campaign that would ultimately be extraordinarily successful.

Table of Contents

Introduction...................................................................................................................................1

Part 1  Minerva in Pre-Flavian Italy.........................................................................................10

1.1 Iconography and Types...............................................................................................11

 Etruscan Iconography................................................................................................12

Roman Iconography....................................................................................................16

1.2 Attributes.....................................................................................................................24

Arms and Armor..........................................................................................................25

Garment and Aegis......................................................................................................26

              Thunderbolt..................................................................................................................29

              Palladium.....................................................................................................................31

1.3 Minerva in the Cultural Narrative...............................................................................39

    Etruscan........................................................................................................................40

    Roman Authors: Transition from Etruria.....................................................................45

1.4 Sanctuaries, Votives, and Rituals................................................................................70

Rural Etruscan Sites....................................................................................................72

Etruscan Votive Deposits.............................................................................................81

Urban Etruscan Sanctuaries........................................................................................83

Unlocated or Ambiguous Sites.....................................................................................89

1.5 Transition to Rome......................................................................................................93

Lavinium......................................................................................................................93

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, Capitoline Hill.................................................95

Aedes Minerva, Aventine Hill....................................................................................100

Minerva Capta, Caelian Hill.....................................................................................106

Minerva Medica, Regio V..........................................................................................101

Miscellaneous Shrines and Temples..........................................................................111

1.6 Becoming the Roman Minerva..................................................................................114

Part 2  Domitian’s Minerva.....................................................................................................117

2.1 Minerva Romana……...............................................................................................118

2.2 Minerva Flavia…......................................................................................................138

2.3 Minerva Fautrix.........................................................................................................153

2.4 Public Piety................................................................................................................161

2.5 From Promachos to Polias.........................................................................................186

Conclusion  Minerva: From the Etruscans to Domitian…………………………………...188

Appendices

A.1 Over-Lifesized Marble Head in Budapest................................................................190

A.2 The Forum Transitorium..........................................................................................199

A.3 Charts and Maps.......................................................................................................205

A.4 Timeline....................................................................................................................211

Catalog........................................................................................................................................212

Bibliography...............................................................................................................................255

About this Dissertation

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School	Laney Graduate School
Department	Art History
Degree	Ph.D.
Submission	Dissertation
Language	English
Research Field	Classical Studies History, Ancient Art History
Keyword	Flavian Rome Roman religion Domitian Imperial Rome Minerva Roman propaganda
Committee Chair / Thesis Advisor	Varner, Eric, Emory University
Committee Members	Blakely, Sandra, Emory University Wescoat, Bonna, Emory University

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