Rising Above Stigma: A Theoretical Model and Empirical Tests of Stigma-Based Assets and Workplace Outcomes Restricted; Files Only

Abstract

In this dissertation, I apply a novel lens on stigma to illuminate unknown strengths that can come from enduring the systematically harder life experiences associated with having a stigmatized social identity. Integrating research on coping with stigma, identity management, and experiential learning, I theorize a process through which stigmatized individuals might develop stigma-based assets – or socioemotional skills acquired through learning to cope with recurring instances of stigmatization. I further articulate how and when these skills will benefit individuals’ work performance in the form of interpersonal organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). These ideas are tested in four studies. First, in a pilot study utilizing archival survey data from a nationally representative sample, I find evidence for more helping behavior among gay, lesbian, and bisexual (vs. heterosexual) individuals. Next, in two field surveys of LGBTQ+ professionals, I find that the degree of stigma participants experienced in their lifetimes is positively and linearly associated with their self-reported empathy (Studies 1 and 2) and curvilinearly (inverted-U-shaped) associated with their ability to accurately identify others’ emotions, assessed via an objective ability test (Study 2). In turn, empathy, but not emotional awareness skill, was associated with self (Studies 1 and 2) and peer (Study 2) ratings of interpersonal OCB. Finally, I demonstrate the generalizability of these findings with a community sample covering multiple stigmatized identities (Study 3). This multi-time-point study, which used a behavioral measure of interpersonal OCB, showed that participants’ lifetime experienced stigma is positively and linearly related to both their self-reported empathy and their ability to accurately identify others’ emotions (again assessed via an objective ability test). In turn, both empathy and emotional awareness skill were positively associated with persistence on a helping task. Overall, these findings articulate the potential for stigma to strengthen, not solely diminish, those who bear its mark – benefitting their careers and the organizations that embrace them. 

Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION         1

THEORETICAL MODEL 6

The Experience of Stigma      6

Conceptualizing Experienced Stigma 6

Establishing the Boundaries of Stigma          12

A Theory of Stigma-Based Assets      14

Learning Through a Cycle of Adaptive Coping          16

Stigma-Based Assets: Socioemotional Skills Developed Through Adaptive Coping 23

The Relationship Between Experienced Stigma and Stigma-Based Assets   26

Stigma-Based Assets and Interpersonal Helping       29

The Critical Role of an Inclusive Organizational Climate       33

OVERVIEW OF STUDIES AND TESTABLE HYPOTHESES          35

Specific Hypotheses   36

Overview of Studies   39

PILOT STUDY  40

Method          40

Data   40

Measures       40

Results and Discussion          43

STUDY 1         45

Method          46

Sample 46

Procedure      47

Measures       48

Results 51

Confirmatory Factor Analysis 51

Hypothesis Tests        52

Discussion      54

STUDY 2         56

Method          56

Sample 56

Procedure      58

Measures       59

Results 63

Confirmatory Factor Analysis 64

Hypothesis Tests        64

Discussion      70

STUDY 3         72

Method          72

Sample 72

Procedure      73

Measures       76

Results 81

Confirmatory Factor Analysis 82

Hypothesis Tests        83

Discussion      86

GENERAL DISCUSSION           87

Theoretical Contributions      87

Limitations and Future Work 90

Practical Implications and Concluding Thoughts      93

REFERENCES  95

APPENDIX A: GSS PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR ITEMS, PILOT STUDY        126

APPENDIX B: EXPERIENCED STIGMA MEASURE, STUDIES 1 & 2       127

APPENDIX C: SAMPLE QUESTIONS FROM THE GENEVA EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE (GECO) TEST USED IN STUDY 2         129

APPENDIX D: EXPERIENCED STIGMA MEASURE, STUDY 3    132

List of Tables

Table 1: Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations, Pilot Study 139

Table 2: OLS Regression Results, Pilot Study 140

Table 3: Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations, Study 1     142

Table 4: OLS Regression Results for Empathy, Study 1         143

Table 5: OLS Regression Results for Interpersonal OCB, Study 1      144

Table 6: Summary of Results for Hypotheses 1 and 2 Across Studies 1-3    145

Table 7: Summary of Results for Hypotheses 3 and 4 Across Studies 1-3    146

Table 8: Means and Standard Deviations, Study 2    147

Table 9: Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations, Study 2     148

Table 10: OLS Regression Results for Empathy, Study 2       150

Table 11: OLS Regression Results for Emotional Skill Total Score, Study 2  151

Table 12: OLS Regression Results for Emotion Recognition Score, Study 2 152

Table 13: OLS Regression Results for Emotion Understanding Score, Study 2         153

Table 14: OLS Regression Results for Emotion Regulation Score, Study 2   154

Table 15: OLS Regression Results for Emotion Management Score, Study 2           155

Table 16: OLS Regression Results for Self-Rated Interpersonal OCB, Study 2          156

Table 17: OLS Regression Results for Peer-Rated Interpersonal OCB, Study 2        158

Table 18: Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations, Study 3   160

Table 19: Group Mean Differences in Experienced Stigma, Study 3 162

Table 20: OLS Regression Results for Empathy, Study 3       165

Table 21: OLS Regression Results for Emotion Recognition Score, Study 3 166

Table 22: OLS Regression Results for Interpersonal OCB, Study 3    167

List of Figures

Figure 1: Proposed Theoretical Model          168

Figure 2: Proposed Cycle of Adaptive Coping with Stigma   169

Figure 3: Mediation Results, Study 1 170

Figure 4: Emotional Skill Total Score by Experienced Stigma, Study 2         171

Figure 5: Mediation Results for Self-Rated Interpersonal OCB, Study 2       172

Figure 6: Mediation Results for Peer-Rated Interpersonal OCB, Study 2     173

Figure 7: Effects of Emotion Recognition (from Experienced Stigma) on Self-Rated Interpersonal OCB, Moderated by Organizational Inclusion Climate, Study 2         174

Figure 8: Effects of Emotion Recognition (from Experienced Stigma) on Peer-Rated Interpersonal OCB, Moderated by Organizational Inclusion Climate, Study 2         175

Figure 9: Sample Trial from Photo-Rating Task, Study 3       176

Figure 10: Number of Stigmas by Self-Reported Experienced Stigma, Study 3        177

Figure 11: Mediation Results, Study 3           178

About this Dissertation

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School	Laney Graduate School
Department	Business
Degree	Ph.D.
Submission	Dissertation
Language	English
Research Field	Business Administration, Management
Keyword	diversity stigma organizational demography organizational citizenship behavior workplace diversity emotional abilities
Committee Chair / Thesis Advisor	Melissa J. Williams, Emory University
Committee Members	Erika V. Hall, Emory University Karen A. Hegtvedt, Emory University Jill Perry-Smith, Emory University

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